Police Abuse Essay

Police brutality is the excessive, unreasonable use of force against citizens, suspects, and offenders. A study showed that most citizens complained against police officers because of the use of profanity and abusive language towards them, the use of commands to move on or get home, stopping and questioning people on the street or searching them and their cars without probable cause, the use of threats to use force if not obeyed, prodding with a nightstick or approaching with a pistol, and actual use of physical force or violence itself for no reason at all. Police brutality causes a lack of communication between minority groups and the police department and a lack of trust because of previous run-ins with brutality. In some cases police brutality runs over into an officer’s personal life as well. There have been several cases where an officer is arrested due to domestic violence and leads to an investigation of their work life. Most of the time there are cover ups, when domestic disputes occur so that the department does not get negative coverage if the incident was to get out, (2002, November). Ethics are considered a structure for most departments in the United States. There are several bad apples that get greedy and are cocky at times and think that they cannot be touched if they do wrong. Police departments around the U.S. have several issues with corruption, misconduct, and brutality. Most of  the time these issues are covered up so that, these officers do not give the departments bad names and people do not trust them and they, are having more crime on their hands instead of defeating the crime. In recent years, police actions, particularly police abuse has come into view of a wide, public and critical eye. While citizens worry about protecting themselves from criminals, it has now been shown that they must also keep a watchful eye on those who are supposed to protect and serve. This paper will discuss the types of police abuse prevalent today, including the use of firearms and recovery of private information. I will also discuss what and how citizens’ rights are taken advantage of by the police. Some measures necessary to protect ourselves from police taking advantage of their positions as law enforcement officers with greater permissive rights than private citizens. All citizens must take affirmative actions from physical brutality, rights violations, and information abuse. Members of the police force are government officials who enforce the law and maintain order. They are engaged in dangerous and stressful occupation that can involve violent situations that must be controlled. In many of these confrontations with the public it may become necessary for the police to administer force in order to take control of the situation. As unfortunate as it may seem however, police officers are injuring and even killing people through the use of excessive force and brutal treatment. In regard to police abuse, there will be many officers who feel that their job of fighting escalating street crime, gangs, narcotics violations, and other violent crimes is difficult already, to such an extent that worrying about excessive policy for abuse behavior will only further decrease their ability to fight crime effectively, efficiently, and safely. This abuse must be monitored so that police do not forget who they are serving; not themselves, but the public. This means that even the criminals, who are a part of the public, have certain rights, accurately identified as civil rights. One of the main police abuse problems is physical brutality. I think that there should be some kind of written policy that would restrict physical force to the narrowest possible range of specific situations. For example, there should be limitations on the use of hand to hand combat, batons, mace, stun  guns and firearms. However, limiting policies actions will bring much debate, especially from police officers and administrators themselves. Many feel that their firepower is already too weak to battle the weapons that criminals have out on the streets, thus limiting their legality of gun use will not only endanger them, but the innocent bystanders who must endure the hierarchy gun power creates in the benefit of criminals. In simple terms, corruption in policing is usually viewed as the misuse of authority by a police officer acting to fulfill personal needs or wants. For a corrupt act to occur, three distinct elements of police corruption must be present simultaneously: Misuse of authority, Misuse of official capacity, Misuse of personal attainment, (Kornblum 1976: p 71). It has been said that power inevitably leads to corruption, and it is yet to be recognized that , while there is no reason to suppose that policemen as individuals are any less fallible than other members of society, people are often shocked and outraged when policemen are exposed to violating the law. Not only should officers use brutality in very limited situations, I think that it would help requiring officers to file a written report after any use of physical force, regardless of how seemingly insignificant. Although, if every incidence of police abuse was requested to be reported, how many actually would be? Maybe only those serious enough, as depicted in new guidelines, would make it, leaving some space for officers to exert pressure without crossing serious and abusive policy. Another good tactic to control police brutality is to establish a system to identify officers who have been involved in an inordinate number of incidents that include the inappropriate use of physical fo rce. The incidents should then be investigated. For those offices who are frequently involved in unnecessary police brutality, they should be charged, disciplined, re-trained, and offered counseling. If such treatment proves ineffective, officers who violate abuse standards should be brought up on review before an administrative board made up of citizens and police officials. Officers will most likely ask, â€Å"Is identifying abusive officers a  form of prejudice? The police officer is there to serve and protect the public who pays his or her salary. The officer should then be subject to any investigations into his or her abusive actions on the job. Yet even if internal policy and external government supervision is successful, it is difficult to say how the ethics of police officers will affect abuse policy as they are based on personal background and upbringing that have little to do with the issue at hand. While there are specific solutions to brutality and rights abuse, there are also some general solutions that could be implemented before the problems even arise. For example, there should be changes in police officer training. Some communities have demanded their officers receive higher education. However, there is no proof that well-educated officers rely less on abuse and more on departmentally sound investigation techniques. The length of training of police personnel should be increased, as has been the recent trend throughout the years. â€Å"The average length of police academy programs has more than doubled, from about 300, to over 600 hours; in some cities, 900 up to even 1200 hours has become the new rule.† (Silverman 1999: p 124) As the time devoted to training has increased, the institutions should also stress the importance of the growing trends in criminal activity so that they are prepared to deal with them. These include such areas as race relations, domestic violence, handling the mentally ill, and so on. This will, in turn, enable operations run more smoothly, hopefully avoiding police abuse problems in the future. Methods must be implemented which effectively deal with police who tend to cross the line, from simple situations to serious firearm use or prejudice. Some of the solutions, particularly the policy changes, will be met with controversy and will be difficult to implement. Keeping track of police actions is the next step in self-protection. There have been thousands of reported incidents of police misconduct in the countless cities throughout the nation, and probably thousands more that transpire without any mention. Law enforcement officers in the United States have been granted powerful authority to assist them in serving and protecting the people of this country. Many of them use their authority to uphold their duties with honor and  integrity. However, the abuses of these powers are taking place with more and more frequency. The police scandals that have surfaced within the past decade have been multiplying. If drastic measures are not taken to restore the integrity of the United States Law Enforcement, chaos will permeate throughout the nation. As citizens begin to lose their trust for law enforcement, they will gradually lose their trust in the â€Å"system†. While the threat of a world war has diminished, the violence on the streets across America has increased at a dramatic rate. Police are forced to face this violence and are sometimes caught up in the same violent and abusive cycle whole trying to fight it. Citizens realize that there are limits as to what a police officer can do. To make society a safe place for both citizens and officers, it is imperative that they work together for a comprehensive checks and balances system. The United States Constitution guarantees certain rights for everyone, and is the very backbone of this country. If these rights are to be ignored, either through permissive laws enacted by law enforcement against private citizens, or through a lack of maintenance of existing protective legislation, private citizens; which means the entire country, will become paralyzed. Because of this, the opportunity and freedom which this country is built on must be enforced, and those charged with doing so must not abuse their power. References (2002, December) Police Corruption, http://www.iejs.com/policing word-slash-word police_corruption.htm (2002, November) Addressing police misconduct, http://www.usdoj.gov (2002, November) Police brutality: the cop crimes homepage for law enforcement and government corruption, http://www.copcrimes.comword-slashwordhomepage.htm Alpert, Geoffrey P., Dunham Roger G. Police Use of Deadly Force. Washington D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1995. Chevigny, Paul. Police Power. Toronto: Random House, 1994. Cohen, Henry. Brutal Justice. New York: John Jay Press, 1980. Kornblum, Alan N. The Moral Hazards. New York: D.C. Heath, 1976. Silverman, Eli B. NYPD Battles Crime. Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press, 1999.

Intro to Bio Essay

1. What patterns do you observe based on the information in Table 1? The patterns that I observe based on the information in Table 1 is that the more dissolved oxygen contained in the water, the more fish are observed in that particular area of water. 2. Develop a hypothesis relating to the amount of dissolved oxygen measured in the water sample and the number of fish observed in the body of water. The hypothesis that I would develop relating to the amount of dissolved oxygen measured in the water sample and the number of fish observed in the body of water is if there is more dissolved oxygen contained in the water, there will be more fish present in the area the water sample is being taken from. 3. What would your experimental approach be to test this hypothesis? My experimental approach in order to test this hypothesis would be to test the dissolved oxygen contained in different areas of water and keep track of the fish in those areas and then compare the results. 4. What are the independent and dependent variables? The independent and dependent variables are the independent is the dissolved oxygen and the dependent is the fish. 5. What would be your control? What would be my control is no control. 6. What type of graph would be appropriate for this data set? Why? The type of graph that would be appropriate for this data set would be a line graph because it will support the hypothesis that I came up with as well as provide clear results. 7. Graph the data from Table 1: Water Quality vs. Fish Population (found at the beginning of this exercise). You may use Excel, then â€Å"Insert† the graph, or use another drawing program. You may also draw it neatly by hand and scan your drawing. If you choose this option, you must insert the scanned jpg image here. 8. Interpret the data from the graph made in Question 7. The data from the graph shows the population of fish on the Y axis and the dissolved oxygen on the X axis. The population of fish increases in the graph because of the increased amount of dissolved oxygen found in the body of water.

Mediation paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Mediation paper - Essay Example emerge from two sources, either as of emerging from the light or as of going into the light.† Photography with photographs are instruments which allow us go into light as well as come out of light. Susan Sontag says that In Plato’s Cave, â€Å"photographs furnish evidence,† therefore, in that manner, they serve as evidence that somebody has moved out there and observed the planet. Pictures cannot get captured devoid of considering the planet, whether by means of your vision or by camera lens. Nevertheless, simultaneously, photography takes as away from an occasion, prevents us from actually getting into conduct with it, and furthermore thus turning the images into â€Å"shadows of each other.† Sontag suggests that â€Å"a camera’s representation of realism should at all times conceal too much than it reveals,† every person takes their own distinctive viewpoint into the understanding of any painting. Photographs frequently uphold a vacuum of anonymity if they are not followed by narration. Hence, intention of the photographer can get lost inside the predetermined viewpoints that each spectator puts into consideration if understanding an image. Additionally, rigid photographers may attempt to reveal actuality; each minute choice they create twists the snap in their understanding of the earth. According to Sontag, â€Å"photographs are to a great extent world interpretations like works of art and drawings† (Sontag 6). Within one such snap, with both its preconceptions along with my exceptional elucidation of it, a youngster is starting at a police officer in the company of a smiling face. The police officer leans down, possibly to structure for the disparity in tallness involving them. Also, they create a kind of quasi encircle, standing separately from the remaining crowd, creating their small planet at that time. The mass is composed of nearly completely of grownups standing the footways as well they are both facing in the similar direction. Similarly, heads

Exchange of the Products in a Physical Form and Sale or Purchase of Literature review

Exchange of the Products in a Physical Form and Sale or Purchase of Foreign Currency - Literature review Example Two major factors are said to be the litmus test of market efficiency: the magnitude of statistical dependence between consecutive movements in exchange rates and the profitability of trading regulations. Research pertaining to the first issue on common statistical mechanisms like runs analysis and serial correlation analysis is to decide on the magnitude of reliance between successive exchange rate changes. (Jacque 1997:110). One hypothesis demonstrates that the past exchange rates include useful data in projecting future exchange rates since the data only spreads slowly among market participants, thus contradicting the market efficiency hypothesis. Poole in his empirical study has established substantial serial dependence in the currency price-rates of change by employing tests of serial correlation, filter rules and variance-time function. Pool attributed his research findings of serial reliance on transaction and inventory-carrying costs. Dooley and Shafer (1976) found a substant ial serial correlation in exchange rate series, thus doubting the Market Efficiency theory and a contrario, offering empirical proof for the Price Dynamics theory of exchange rate behaviour. Giddy and Dufey (1975) in their research study of the comparative projecting correctness of five models, proved that the behaviour of spot exchange rates is best illustrated as following a random walk, an outcome clearly dependable with the weak form of market efficiency. Some research studies have revealed that certain trading methodologies are able to make optimistic surplus revenues.

International and comparative education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International and comparative education - Essay Example The concept of gender equity is the stage of human social development whereby the rights, responsibilities and the opportunities available to individuals will not be subject to determine by the fact of being born male or female. In a complete gender balanced situation, it will be possible for aal genders to realize their full potential. There is a major problem of gender imbalance in the education sector, particularly on the participation of the feminine gender. It is apparent that the female gender remains the most to be disadvantaged  on matters of  access to education at different levels. This topic has been under debate in many international platforms as the initiative of enhancing girl child education (Gerntholtz et al., 2011). Basing on this context, it thus leads to the thesis; countries that fail capitalizing on the full potential of gender balance are misallocating their human resources, thus undermining their competitive advantage. This paper is going to analyze on the education system of South Africa and Nigeria with the aim of addressing issues of gender imbalance, focusing particularly on teenage education. The main purpose of the paper aims at justifying how investment in educational gender balance helps in shaping the ability of both the male and female for them to reach their full potential in t he society. The main problems facing the education system worldwide is the aspect of achieving gender balance. Educational attainment is without any doubt, remains the most fundamental prerequisite aimed at empowering women in all spheres of the society. Without having a comparable quality on the content of education provided to the boys and men in society, women will be unable to access well-paid and formal sector jobs. They will also fail to advance within them, be able to participate in, be unable to be represented in government, and fail to gain political influence (Gerntholtz

The economics system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

The economics system - Essay Example With the advancement in the technological and environmental aspect, the nations are involving in better means of production and distribution to earn competitive advantage in the global scenario. The concept of the economic system is elaborated as the system of production and trade of goods and/or services in a community. The overall economic system includes individual, organisation, sectors and end users of a society or in general, it is often referred as the mode of production. Moreover, economics is identified on a wider concept, which is sub-divided into the two aspects i.e. micro and macroeconomics. Microeconomics focuses on demand and supply of products and/or services in the markets in relation to the change in the price level. On the other hand, macroeconomic dimension includes the relationship of the aggregate variables including the purchasing power, price income and money (McConnell et al., 2009). The study of the overall economic system comprises both the micro and macro economy of a nation or a particular community at large about how firms and various agencies are linked among each other, how the communication information flow between the them and the social relationship in the economic system. Thus, in larger and boarder term, it comprises various processes that are followed within a geographical region in the production, distribution and circulation of labor for producing products and/or services, machineries, consumer goods and infrastructure among others. Moreover, the economic system of one nation varies with other nations due to differences in the political structure, culture and environmental conditions. In this regard, the point will be justified with the fact that Chinese economic system is comparatively very complex as compare the western nations’. The economic system consist of both capitalistic and socialistic aspects and the global economic system falls in four main

Confucious and the golden rule Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Confucious and the golden rule - Assignment Example sus’ positive assertion, considering other people and making efforts to help them would be living according to this code every day (Henderson, 2014). There are no exemptions from Jesus’s golden rule because he is the one who stated it. Jesus expects his followers to do positive things to others proactively that they themselves would like others to do to them (Henderson, 2014). However, Confucius’ golden rule can have exemptions considering it was a teaching for his students and stated by a mortal in contrast to Jesus, a deity. Jesus’ golden rule infers that God’s grace deliberates salvation to those who are good to others, but only when they have faith in him. This deliberation is a response to Christians’ repentance toward God (Reilly, 2010). The proof of this faith is visible in Christians’ God-given ability to adhere to the golden rule, which is the rule I live by. To show my faith in God, I live knowing that doing good to others is what God initially intended of

2nd amendment - the right to bare arms- US Constitution Research Paper

2nd amendment - the right to bare arms- US Constitution - Research Paper Example The 10 amendments were ratified only four years after the signing of the US Constitution. In contrast, slavery took some time or some 78 years from the signing of the Constitution or on 6 December 1865 to be abolished through Amendment 13. As of 1992, there have been 27 amendments to the original US Constitution. The Bill of Rights Institute explained that the American bill of rights has its origins in the British Charters of Liberty (4). Further, in England in 1688, the Glorious Revolution that placed Prince William of Orange and his wife Mary on the throne, required that as condition for the couple’s rule, the couple would have to accept the Declaration of Rights and the Toleration Act of 1869 (Bill of Rights Institute 4). According to the Bill of Rights Institute, the Toleration Act gave Englishmen the right to religion while the Declaration of Rights gave Englishmen the right to keep arms, among other rights (4). The American founding fathers were influenced by the notions of rights enshrined in the Declarations of Rights and the Toleration Act such that when the British ignored the common laws, they asserted that the said laws be followed or that â€Å"their mindset as Englishmen allowed them to assert their rights as Americans† (Bill of Rights Institute 4). According to t he Bill of Rights Institute, even long before the American Revolution, the American colonialists who fled the religious turmoil in England had a notion that their rights as Englishmen were part of colonial law (7). After the Revolution of 1776, first American states united under the Articles of Confederation (Bill of Rights Institute 7). However, the founding fathers considered that the Articles of confederation were insufficient for governance (Bill of Rights 7). Thus, the American Constitution was born. Opponents, however, had opposed a strong government represented by the American Constitution but settled for a compromise arrangement wherein delegates

Bill of Rights 2nd Amendment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Bill of Rights 2nd Amendment - Essay Example 1). Arms in this case include any kind of firearms (handguns, rifles, and shotgun among others). The Second Amendment, as intended by the founding fathers, gives individuals the constitutional right to bear arms although the state reserves the mandate to regulate their ownership and use. This paper will analyze the Second Amendment to the Constitution of the United States in light of its history and controversial nature. Although the Second Amendment was ratified in December 1791, it was passed by Congress on September 25, 1789 (National Constitution Center par. 1). The history of the Second Amendment to the American Constitution traces its roots to the English law which held that people have natural rights to defend themselves against aggression. Before the American Revolution English Settlers in America held the view that the right to bear arms or state militia was important for several reasons. Some of the reasons that that they assigned to bearing arms included: to repel invasion; to facilitate self-defense; for law enforcement; to suppress insurrection; to prevent tyrannical government; and to enable the organization of a militia system (Adams 47). This was indeed the case in the different states that today make up the United States as evidenced by their individual constitutions. For example, the Constitution of Pennsylvania expressly stated that the people have a right to arms for which they c an use to defend the state or themselves. Before the American Revolution took place, colonists who pledged their allegiance to the British government bore arms, forming a colonial militia (Adams 82). However, with the passage of time some colonists developed mistrust for the British government and by extension, distrust toward those who were loyal to it. The colonists who favored independence from British rule established colonial legislatures that were free of the control of the British government. They used these

Battle of Algiers Essay Example for Free

Battle of Algiers Essay One of the problems that continue to be a part of our modern society is the act of terrorism, which has played a major role in our modern warfare that continues to exist in the Middle Eastern regions. It is sadly a successful instrument that has been exploited by many terrorist groups through the fierce history of mankind. This method has often been approached when confronted by immeasurable odds and crushing military force that cannot be overcome by conventional methods. This act of Guerilla warfare has been witnessed before in countries such as Vietnam, Laos and in recent days Afghanistan and Iraq. The ideology behind Guerilla warfare is not only an act of retribution against the enemy forces but also an act, which the radical groups anticipate will persuade others to fall in line with their belief. In the movie, The Battle of Algiers, the same message is being persuaded by the FLN, when they rise up to go to war against the French army. The filmmaker Gillo Pontecorvo captures their act of retribution against the French colonizer with such scenes as, â€Å"the drive by shooting of French citizens in an ambulance† or the suicide bombings at different locations crowded with French citizens. These scenes convey a message, which is rarely shown in modern films today, as the scenes not only create a positive attitude towards the act of vengeance but also makes it seem acceptable to take the lives of innocent individuals in order to gain the freedom of your nation and your people. Nevertheless, Stone in his article of Reel Terrorism portrays these acts quite differently as he envisions them from the viewpoint of an Islamic retribution rather than a revolution of freedom through war. In his article, Stone continues to portray an image of Islam being at the center of the film, which in my opinion is absolutely incorrect, as it not only takes away the freedom that these men and women fought for but also creates the central idea that the only reason the people of Algiers rose against the colonists is not because of oppression but rather because they wanted to bring back Islamic principles in order to purify their nation, which had been tainted by Western influence. In my opinion Stone focuses more on the metaphors that he himself creates from the movie, which seem to be greatly influenced from what the western media has portrayed the Middle Eastern freedom fighter to be in this modern warfare. Stone also continues to use this characterization of Islam within the movie in relationship to the ongoing war between America and terrorism. In the article, he mentions that it seemed reasonable to invade Afghanistan that was ruled by the Taliban, who are cruel to women, sheltered Bin Laden, and hated Americans. This quotation by Stone not only approves the act of vengeance, which he himself finds to be inappropriate within the movie but also makes it seem reasonable for Americans to become the colonizer within Afghanistan and to change their religious faith to be more acceptable in society. Nevertheless, Stones usage of characterization of Islam within the movie takes away the message that Pontecorvo was trying to portray in his movie, which was to show the audience the stand that people have to take against the colonizer in order to preserve their cultural heritage from becoming extinct.

Image Pre-compensation for Ocular Aberrations

Image Pre-compensation for Ocular Aberrations Introduction Motivation On-screen image pre-compensation has good prospect with the increasing usage of various display screen devices in our daily life. Comparing to glasses, contact glasses and ocular surgery, on-screen image pre-compensation can be easily carried out by computer calculation without any irreversible change in the eyes, as long as the ocular aberration is known. Further, since neither contact lenses nor glasses are advised to be worn all of the time, on screen pre-compensation could even supplement glasses and contact lens use. It is known that compensation for higher aberrations can lead to super-sight, which is the neural limit of human eye. On-screen compensation also has the prospect of achieving this with customized screens in the foreseeable future. Image Processing Theories Human Visual System The human visual system is the combination of the optical system of the eye, and the neural processing of the light information received [Roorda (2011)], in which the latter is out of the concern of this research. The optical system of the eye is an intricate construction including the pupil, cornea, retina and lens (see Fig.1). The light come through the pupil is refracted by the lens and make an inverse image on the retina. During this process, any deficit would cause aberrations. For instance, myopia may result from the lens that the refraction is too high or that the distance from the lens and retina is too long. Fig.1 Cross-section of eye structure There is a limit resolution dominated by the neural receptor on the retina, which is below the diffraction limit. Although even for normal emmetropic eyes the sight is below neural limit and diffraction limit due to the minor deficit of eye structure. [Austin (2011)] For eyes with refractive issues, caused by cornea or lens from an ideal spherical shape, the aberrations would significantly dominate over this limit. Thus, in the following research, we shall omit the neural limitation. To increase the efficiency in the following, we can simply model the eye structure as such: a lens (regarding the cornea and the lens as a whole) with an adjustable size (pupil size) and an image plane (retina). Point Spread Function and image quality As is stated in the previous section the aberrations would come from any deficit of eye structure. In order to quantify the distortion in mathematical means, we introduce the Point Spread Function (PSF). Fundamentally, the PSF is defined as a function describes the response of an imaging system to a point source or point object. Note that the loss of light would not be considered in the PSF. Then, if we consider the PSF does not change across the field of view, which applies to the central 1-2 ° of visual angle [Reference!!!], the image can be expressed by the convolution of the PSF and the object in this area. (1) Where denotes the convolution algorithm. Note that the deconvolution method is based on the inverse operation of Eq.1, which will be introduce in Section 1.2.4. Fig.2 A contrast of PSF and MTF of an ideal emmetropic eyes (up) and a typical myopic eyes of -1.00 dioptre (down) Now we introduce two functions that can show the quality of the image: Optical Transfer Function (OTF) and the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF). Either OTF or MTF specifies the response to a periodic sine-wave pattern passing through the lens system, as a function of its spatial frequency or period, and its orientation [WIKI]. The OTF is the Fourier transform of the PSF, and the MTF is the real magnitude of the OTF. In a 2d system, these two functions are defined as: (2) Where denotes the Fourier transform, and denote the phase space and Euclidian space, respectively. (3) Where means taking the absolute value. Zernike Polynomials The Zernike polynomials are a sequence of polynomials that are orthogonal over circular pupils. Some of the polynomials are related to classical aberrations. In optometry and ophthalmology, Zernike polynomials are the standard way to describe aberrations of the cornea or lens from an ideal spherical shape, which result in refraction errors [WIKI]. The definition of orthogonal Zernike Polynomials recommended in an ANSI standard is represented as: (4) Where m and n denote the radial degree and the azimuthal frequency, respectively. The radial polynomials are defined as: And the triangular functions: (6) Note that nm and nm must be even. The relationship between double index (m, n) and single index (i): Table.1 Eye aberrations presented by Zernike Polynomials Aberrations are expressed as the distortion of the wavefront as it passes through the eye. As is stated, Zernike polynomials are the standard way [Campbell (2003)] of quantifying this distortion. The aperture function (or pupil function) can link Zernike polynomials with the PSF: Where denotes complex aperture function (or pupil function). denotes the phase of the wavefront, and the i is the imaginary unit and denotes the amplitude function, which is usually one inside the circular pupil and zero on the outside. The PSF can be expressed as the square of Fourier transform of the complex aperture function: We now know that the PSF can be calculated with a known wavefront and the distortion of the wavefront caused by refractive error can be actually represented by several orders of Zernike Polynomials with different amplitudes, which can be precisely measured with a Shack-Hartmann wavefront analyser device. Deconvolution Method We introduce a way to pre-process the image to neutralize the aberration caused by eyes, which is also called image pre-compensation. Simplistically, to compensate them in advance to proactively counteract degradations resulting from the ocular aberrations of different users. Point Spread Function (PSF) is defined as a function describes the response of an imaging system to a point source or point object. The sinusoidal function is an eigenstate of the PSF (i.e. if the input image is a sinusoidal function, no matter what the PSF is, the output image would also be a sinusoidal function) The Image on the retina (or) can be linked with PSF by convolution as shown in Eq.1. Then we do Fourier transform on both side of the equation Note the convolution has changed to multiplication in the phase space. If we define a new OBJ as: The new image is This means If we can process the OBJ as defined, we will have the intended image in the observers eyes. To form the OBJ we introduce Minimum Mean Square Error filtering (or Wiener Filter) Where K is a constant. Computing Theories Fast Fourier Transform As is shown in previous sections, we use two algorithms that require an amount of calculation, which is Fourier transform (inverse Fourier transform) and convolution. Since computer images can be seen as 2-demension lattices, we will use 2d Discrete Fourier Transform: It is known that this process requires a significant amount of calculation. The conventional way of doing this would take a long time for regular PC. However, for research need, we will need to do this calculation in real-time. Thus, we introduce the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). A definition of FFT could be: An FFT is an algorithm computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of a sequence or its inverse. Fourier analysis converts a signal from its original domain (often time or space) to representation in the frequency domain and vice versa. An FFT rapidly computes such transformations by factorizing the DFT matrix into a product of sparse (mostly zero) factors. [Van Loan (1992)] Also, all convolution within our program will be calculated by means of the FFT through the following equation: (16) Fig.3 A contrast of the speed of two means of calculation with respect of data length. The purpose of doing so is to accelerate the speed of calculation, since the conventional way of calculating convolution is much slower than the FFT. This difference of speed is shown in Fig.3. Nyquist Limit As is stated, we need the image and the PSF to before doing the pre-compensation. The PSF is calculated by aperture function Eq.9. To simulate the pupil, we can use a circular apertureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. However, this circular pupil has some restrictions in computer simulation, which is the Nyquist limit. In signal processing if we If we want to reconstruct all Fourier components of a periodic waveform, there is a restriction that the sampling rate needs to be at least twice the highest waveform frequency. The Nyquist limit, also known as Nyquist frequency, is the highest frequency that can be coded at a given sampling rate in order to be able to fully reconstruct the signal, which is half of the sampling rate of a discrete signal processing system. [Cramà ©r Grenander (1959)] For our simulation the sampling rate n is represented as: Aliasing will occur when . Psychometric Theories In order to quantify the enhancement of the Deconvolution Method to the subjects, we need to measure the change of the thresholds of the eyes before and after the compensation. Specifically, in our research we need to find out the threshold of minimum contrast and size of an image that the subjects can correctly recognize. This requires the use of some psychometric theories. Adaptive Staircase Method The staircase method is a widely used method in psychophysics test. The point of staircase method is to adjust the intensity of stimuli according to the response of the participant. To illustrate this method we shall use an example introduced by Cronsweet (1962): Suppose the problem is to determine Ss absolute, intensive threshold for the sound of a click. The first stimulus that E delivers is a click of some arbitrary intensity. S responds either that he did or did not hear it. If S says yes (he did hear it), the next stimulus is made less intense, and if S says no, the second stimulus is made more intense. If S responds yes to the second stimulus, the third is made less intense, and if he says no, it is made more intense. This procedure is simply continued until some predetermined criterion or number of trials is reached. The results of a series of 30 trials are shown in Fig.4. The results may be recorded directly on graph-paper; doing so helps E keep the procedure straight. Fig. 4 An example trail by Cornsweet (1962) There are four important characteristic of adaptive staircase method (1) Starting value; (2) Step-size; (3) Stopping condition; and (4) Modification of step-sizes. [Cornsweet 1962] The starting value should be near the threshold value. As is shown in Fig.4, the starting point determines how many step until it reach a level that near the threshold. The test will be most efficient if the starting value is near to that threshold. The step-size is 1 db for the example test. Step-size should meet the requirement that it is neither too big that not able to measure the threshold accurately nor too small to slow down the test process. It is advised that the step-size would be the most effective when it is the size of the differential threshold. The result with the staircase method would be like Fig.4 in general when it hover around a certain level of intensity of stimuli. When reached this asymptotic level, the trails should be taken into account. An efficient way is to set a number of trails that need to be record and start to count after it reach the asymptotic level. Under some conditions, the step-size need to be changed during the test. For careful experimental design, the first stimulus in each of the staircases are at same intensity-level. [Cornsweet 1962] However, then the staring level would be too far from the final level. This can be avoided by using large steps at the start, and smaller steps when it approach the final level. For instance, this can be done by decrease the step from 3db to 1db at the third reversal. It should be stated that the adaptive staircase method is a very efficient way of measurement. For a given reliability of a computed threshold-value, the staircase-method requires the presentation of many fewer stimuli than any other psychophysical method. Related Work General image compensation has long been used since the invention of lens. The invention of the computer and portable display devices make it easier to perform on-screen image pre-compensation. On-screen compensation has the advantage of convenience in that it can easily be carried out with any display-screen device that can compute. In addition, acuity limits in the human vision on the fovea are found to be between 0.6 and 0.25 arc minutes [Schwiegerling 2000], which is better than the typical acuity of emmetropic eyes [Pamplona 2012]. This means that effective compensation may increase the performance of emmetropic eyes. Deconvolution Method On screen image pre-compensation is based on the idea that the aberrations can be neutralized by pre-compensating the object. Specifically, it requires dividing the Fourier transform of uncorrected image by the Fourier transform of the PSF (i.e. the OTF). A detailed derivation can be found at section1.2.4. Early research by Alonso and Barreto (2003) tested subjects with defocus aberration using this method. Their results showed an improvement in observers visual acuity compared to non-corrected images. However, in practical use, for example, defocus, the defocus magnitude (in dioptres) as well as the pupil size, wavelength and viewing distance (visual angle) is required to calculate and scale the PSF, which means measurement and substitution of these parameters are also required to deliver the intended compensation. Enhancement of Deconvolution Method Recent research has further improved the deconvolution method. Huang et al (2012) carried out work with dynamic image compensation. They fixed the viewing distance from the screen and measured the real-time pupil size with the help of a Tobii T60 eye tracker device. Then they compensated the image with this real-time pupil size data. The reliability and acuity were improved by this dynamic compensation. Unlike perfect eyes, for which bigger pupil size would lead to smaller diffraction limited PSF, for most eyes, a bigger pupil size would lead to an increase in aberrations. That is also why dynamic compensation is important. As is mentioned in previous section, the principle of pre-compensation is to divide the Fourier transform of the image by the Fourier transform of the OTF. In order to avoid near-zero values in the OTF, most of the research used Minimum Mean Square Error filtering (Wiener filter). However, the outcome usually suffers from an apparent loss of contrast. Recent research has revealed other ways to optimize the compensation to have higher contrast and sharper boundaries. The multi-domain approach was introduced by Alonso Jr et al. (2006). They claimed that there are unnecessary parts in pre-compensated image. Simplistically, there is compensation that is irrelevant with respect to the important information in the image. This work showed an improvement of acuity using this method with respect to recognising text. More recently, Montalto et al. (2015) applied the total variation method to process the pre-compensated image. The result is slightly better but still suffers from a trade-off between contrast and acuity. Fundamentally, the impaired human eye can be seen as a low-pass filter, and either an increase of image aliasing or a decrease of contrast is inevitable. Other Approaches The research described above can be seen as an enhancement and a supplement of the original method carried out by Alonso (2003). However, as is stated, there is a limit of image pre-compensation by the PSF deconvolution method. Others has studied other on-screen methods to achieve a better outcome. Huang et al. (2012) introduced a multilayer approach based on the drawback of normal on screen pre-compensation that was shown by Yellot and Yellot (2007). This method is based on the deconvolution method, but uses a double-layer display rather than normal display. According to Fig.2, if we have two separated displays, then we have two different MTF curve. Then, the near-zero gap in MTF can be filled. This approach has showed a demonstrable improvement of contrast and brightness in their simulation. However, it required a transparent front display that does not block the light from the rear display at all, which is not plausible in practical use. Later, Pamplona et al. (2012) investigated a light field theory approach and built a monochrome dual-stack-LCD display (also known as parallax barriers) prototype and a lenticular-based display prototype to form directional light. Huang et al. (2014) restated the potential of using light field theory on image compensation and built another prototype with a parallax barrier mask and higher resolution. The outcome of both methods were similar. They could produce colour images with only a little decrease in contrast and acuity. However, it should be stated that both methods were carried out with a fixed directional light field, which used a fixed camera to photograph the intended corrected image. It is obvious that is not feasible in practical use with moving observer. Adjustable directional light has not been implemented due to the limits imposed by diffraction and resolution. In addition, there are minor issues on the loss of brightness as well in these research. Overall, the most applicable way of on-screen image compensation is still deconvolution method. The light field method requires very precise eye tracking to inject the light into pupil, while deconvolution only requires the observer to keep a certain distance and to be in front of the pre-compensated image. Method Subjects Implementation We built a program for the test that can proceed the pre-compensation in real-time using deconvolution method. This program can pre-compensate any aberration that can be represented by Zernike polynomials The experiment is based on adaptive staircase method. During the experiment, the program shows optotype Landolt-C in four directions (i.e. up, down, left and right) which is randomly generated at each trail. The subjects choose the direction of the Landolt-C. Staircase: This research intend to find two thresholds: contrast and size. Though the We shall describe the staircase method for the contrast threshold. The experiment for size threshold is taken likewise. The four characteristic for our adaptive staircase method are: The start value is relatively large since the subject The step-size The experiment ends in N trials after it reached the final level For our research, we cannot determine an ideal starting value because the subjects have different type and intensity of aberration. Thus, we have to change the size-step to make our experiment efficient. The threshold is calculated using the record the last N trails of the experiment, which is determined by the following equation: Eq.() The program was design as such that Assumptions, Approximations and Limitations Assumption: About Subjects Limitation: Polychromatic issues, No. of Pixels, Staircase References Alonso, M., Barreto, A. B. (2003, September). Pre-compensation for high-order aberrations of the human eye using on-screen image deconvolution. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2003. Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference of the IEEE (Vol. 1, pp. 556-559). IEEE. Alonso Jr, M., Barreto, A., Jacko, J. A., Adjouadi, M. (2006, October). A multi-domain approach for enhancing text display for users with visual aberrations. In Proceedings of the 8th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on Computers and accessibility (pp. 34-39). ACM. Campbell, C. E. (2003). A new method for describing the aberrations of the eye using Zernike polynomials. Optometry Vision Science, 80(1), 79-83. Cornsweet, T. N. (1962). The staircase-method in psychophysics. The American journal of psychology, 75(3), 485-491. Harvey, L. O. (1986). Efficient estimation of sensory thresholds. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, Computers, 18(6), 623-632. Huang, F. C., Wetzstein, G., Barsky, B. A., Raskar, R. (2014). Eyeglasses-free display: towards correcting visual aberrations with computational light field displays. ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), 33(4), 59. Huang, J., Barreto, A., Adjouadi, M. (2012, August). Dynamic image pre-compensation for computer access by individuals with ocular aberrations. In 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (pp. 3320-3323). IEEE. Montalto, C., Garcia-Dorado, I., Aliaga, D., Oliveira, M. M., Meng, F. (2015). A total variation approach for customizing imagery to improve visual acuity. ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), 34(3), 28. Pamplona, V. F., Oliveira, M. M., Aliaga, D. G., Raskar, R. (2012). Tailored displays to compensate for visual aberrations. Roorda, A. (2011). Adaptive optics for studying visual function: a comprehensive review. Journal of vision, 11(5), 6-6. Schwiegerling, J. (2000). Theoretical limits to visual performance. Survey of ophthalmology, 45(2), 139-146. Yellott, J. I., Yellott, J. W. (2007, February). Correcting spurious resolution in defocused images. In Electronic Imaging 2007 (pp. 64920O-64920O). International Society for Optics and Photonics. Young, L. K., Love, G. D., Smithson, H. E. (2013). Different aberrations raise contrast thresholds for single-letter identification in line with their effect on cross-correlation-based confusability. Journal of vision, 13(7), 12-12. Van Loan, C. (1992). Computational frameworks for the fast Fourier transform (Vol. 10). Siam. Cramà ©r, H., Grenander, U. (1959). Probability and statistics: the Harald Cramà ©r volume. Almqvist Wiksell.   Ã‚  

Police Pursuits of Criminals Essay -- Criminal Crime Police Essays

Police Pursuits of Criminals   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There has been a heated debate over the last few years whether police chases are worth the risk of public safety to catch a fleeing criminal. Each year these hot pursuits end in the arrest of thousands of criminals wanted for a wide array of crimes. At the same time it can cause injury and some times even death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a huge misconception that police are out chasing the red-light violator or the burned-out tail light criminal. This is not the case at all. They are protecting the community and chasing serious felons. That is why most cops defend their right to engage in these high-risk pursuits. No police officer wants to try to stop somebody that they believe is good for a crime just to let him walk away. If the person that is being chased is wanted for a crime, not that he is guilty, but just wanted for an investigation, then the police have every right to stop them and to do what is necessary to apprehend them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is also another side to police pursuits with its own troubling statistics. We know that when a pursuit begins it usually ends up causing accidents, injuries, and can some times even be fatal. Critics claim that most of these pursuits are unjustified. Some people say that the suspects flee because they don’t have insurance or their license is revoked. They also say most of them are young and act on impulse and make a bad decision to run. Sometimes it ends up killing innocent people that are in the wrong place at the wrong time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Is the tragic human cost worth the price for high-speed pursuits? On one side of the debate are the people who believe that pursuits should be severely restricted and abolished altogether. They say the police car seems to be the last unregulated weapon in law enforcement’s arsenal. On the other side are the ones sworn to uphold the law and consider pursuits a necessary law enforcement tool. If you go to a no-pursuit law, you are giving a blanket for the criminals to commit any crime they want and law enforcement is not going to be able to do anything about it. They will run every time because they know they will not be chased. If a person fleeing has a chance of hitting pedestrians, then you need to stop that vehicle at all costs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the fatalities mount, no one can run from these issues, least of all the cop behind the wheel. It is safe to say ... ...ce department.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The law enforcement community understands the public concerns for safety and has developed better ways to help pursue fleeing criminals in recent years. One of the best tools now is air support. Helicopters can safely patrol from the sky and there is little chance that the vehicle or criminal can get away. The only problem is that it is very expensive to run. Road spikes have also become popular by puncturing the tires and bringing the vehicle to a crawl.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many people with different opinions about hot pursuits. The public needs to back the police up on this matter so the criminals know we are not going to tolerate this conduct in our community and when they do they can expect to be caught and punished for their actions. If we allow them to get away with this behavior we are only adding to the chaos that is in our society today. As of now there are no better ways of catching a suspect. If people are concerned about the risks of high-speed pursuits, then they need to contact their public leaders and help with funding for better tools like the helicopter. Until this happens police chases will have to continue to be conducted from the ground.

Scotts experience on the moon in Waliking on the Moon by David R. Scott :: essays research papers

Scott's experience on the moon in "Waliking on the Moon" by David R. Scott â€Å"WALKING ON THE MOON† by David R. Scott, an American astronaut, is an account of his experiences on moon which he has narrated by the use of figurative language. He has described each aspect with deep detail in order to portray the moon which is merely seen afar. He has employed various techniques to describe the moon and to make his experiences comprehendible to all and sundry. HE compares, every now and then, his experiences on the moon with the earth. Scott, with his companions in Endeavour, made twelve revolutions around the moon. It took them, two hours to complete one revolution which they did in one hour of illumination and one of darkness. He beautifully describes the darker part of the moon which was suffused with â€Å"earth shine†. The light which the moon received from earth was much intense and bright than the moon light visible from earth. Therefore, they could easily view the mountains and the craters in the earth light. Stars embellished the sky, ahead and above them, with their â€Å"icy fire† and an â€Å"arc of impenetrable darkness blotted the firmament†. Then at dawn â€Å"barely discernible streamers of light† gradually illuminated the moon. Then within a second the sun scattered its intense light and brightened everything and â€Å"dazzled† their eyes. In the â€Å"lunar morning† the surface of the moon appeared to be of â€Å"milk chocolate colour† The pointed shadows highlighted the hills and craters. The writer delineates the changes in colour. As the sun rouse higher and higher the colour of mountains became gray and the shadows reduced in size. The writer describes the moon as an â€Å"arid world†. The lunar day and night continued till 355 earth hours. The moon seemed to be preserved in the time of its creation. Craters formed by the striking of meteorites, millions of years ago, were conspicuous. As the writer saw at the dark sky he caught a glimpse of the earth gleaming in space, â€Å"all blue and white, sea and clouds.† The earth looked brightly lit in the cold and limitless emptiness of space. Scott surveyed and photographed the moon. On the moon there were â€Å"incredible variety of landforms.† The lunar mountains stood in â€Å"noble splendor†. There were ridges and mountains 11000 feet high. The canyons and gorges were more than one thousand d feet deep.

recycling plastic :: essays research papers

Plastics are durable, lightweight materials that were invented in 1909. They are normally made from oil and natural gas. Using plastics to replace packaging materials such as metal and glass has allowed manufacturers to make packages that are more efficient. For example to bottle eight gallons of a beverage would take only two pounds of plastic but would take three pounds of aluminum, eight pounds of steel and 27 pounds of glass. The light weight of plastic packaging helps reduce transportation costs. It takes fewer trucks to transport plastic compared to metal or other materials. Fewer trucks mean less fuel usage and therefore less air pollution from truck exhaust.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Recycling plastic containers helps to conserve landfill space and natural resources and to cut down on pollution. Since the number of landfills continues to diminish, keeping plastic containers out of landfills is important. Plastics do not degrade in landfills. Therefore, containers you throw away will be taking up landfill space hundreds of years from now. Making plastic products from recycled plastic also reduces air and water pollution, and energy used for making plastics from raw materials. Recycled plastic is used to make products such as plastic lumber, toys, containers, carpet, fiber fill for jackets and flowerpots. There are over 1,500 products made with or packaged in recycled plastic. Such uses reduce natural resource consumption and pollution because fewer raw materials are required and less energy is needed to make recycled plastic products than to make plastic products entirely from raw materials. There are different kinds mixtures of resins that make thousands of types of plastics. Ink pens, car parts and plastic bags are all made from different resins. In order to recycle plastics, the different types must be kept separate. Therefore, plastic packages are coded to indicate the type of resin used to make them. The code numbers are found inside the chasing recycling arrows on the bottoms of containers. These numbers help you separate plastic containers for recycling collection or drop off. Uncoded plastics, such as plastic pipes, cannot be recycled but can be reused.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Recycling is a six step process. First they must be cleaned and separated by the type of plastic and by color. The first step is the most important one in the process. Colored plastics cannot be mixed with clear plastics, and plastics with different code numbers cannot be mixed together. Mixing plastics can cause entire bales to be rejected and possibly to be sent to a landfill. They are then compacted and shipped off to the processing facility.

The Earth

1.   Generally, atmosphere layers are hot if they contain gases that absorb some of the light that penetrates to that depth. Transparent layers are cool. The temperature of a layer is generally found by the balance between absorption of solar radiation (heating) and the emission of radiation (cooling). A planet reaches a temperature at which there is a balance between absorption of solar radiation and the emission of infrared radiation by the planet’s surface.The material in the atmosphere, which absorbs solar radiation most actively in ozone. Ozone absorbs electromagnetic waves in the ultra-violet wavelength band. It mainly resides in the stratosphere. Nevertheless, emission and absorption of terrestrial radiation occur at any levels, and the amounts are larger as temperature is higher. Absorption of solar radiation, on the other hand, is mostly limited to the ozone layer. Therefore, resulting equilibrium temperature is high in the ozone layer and low elsewhere.The part of solar radiation that transmit through the ozone layer, though somewhat absorbed in atmospheric constituents and clouds, mostly arrives at the surface (of sea and land) and is absorbed there. In the troposphere, the atmosphere tend to lose energy by radiation alone, but it is compensated by the energy transfer from the surface by means of vertical motion of air (i.e. by convection), and relatively high temperature is maintained. The vertical distribution of temperature in the troposphere is essentially determined as the result of convection.The atmosphere emits terrestrial radiation downward as well as upward. Therefore, terrestrial radiation from the atmosphere arrives at the surface in addition to solar radiation transmitted through the atmosphere. The atmosphere, containing water vapor and carbon dioxide, also absorbs a large part of terrestrial radiation emitted by the surface. The surface air temperature in reality (approximately 287 K) is significantly higher than the temperatu re of the radiation emitted by the earth to space (255 K), because of the effect of the atmosphere absorbing and re-emitting terrestrial radiation. Stratospheric cooling and tropospheric warming are intimately connected, not only through radiative processes, but also through dynamical processes, such as the formation, propagation and absorption of planetary waves. At present not all causes of the observed stratospheric cooling are completely understood.2.   The Earth’s rotational axis is inclined 23.5 degrees from the perpendicular to the plane of the Earth’s orbit. The orientation of the Earth’s axis relative to the Sun and its rays changes continuously as our planet speeds along its orbital path. Twice a year the Earth’s axis is positioned perpendicular to the Sun’s rays, when all places on Earth except the poles experience equal periods of daylight and darkness. These times are the equinoxes, the first days of spring and fall, and they occur o n or about March 21 and September 23, respectively. The Earth’s rotational axis is positioned at the greatest angle from its perpendicular equinox orientation to the Sun’s rays on the solstices – on or about June 21 and December 21.As the Earth orbits the Sun, the inclined axis causes the Northern Hemisphere to tilt towards the Sun for half of the year, i.e. the spring and summer seasons in North America. During this time, more than half of the Northern Hemisphere is in sunlight at any instant of time. During the other half of the year, i.e. the fall and winter seasons in North America, the axis tilts away and less than half of the Northern Hemisphere is in sunlight. The tilting of the Southern Hemisphere relative to the Sun’s rays progresses in opposite fashion, reversing its seasons relative to those in the Northern Hemisphere. The changing orientation of the Earth’s axis to the Sun’s rays determines the length of daylight and the path of the Sun as it passes through the sky at every location on Earth. The continuous change in the angular relationship between the Earth’s axis and the Sun’s rays causes the daily length of daylight to vary throughout the year everywhere on Earth except at the equator.At the equator the daily period of daylight is the same day after day. The changing path of the Sun through the sky produces over the year a cyclical variation in the amounts of solar radiation received that exhibit maximum near the equinoxes and minimum near the solstices. The relatively little variation in the amounts of solar energy received over the year produces seasons quite different from those experienced at higher latitudes. Away from the tropics, the variations in the amounts of solar radiation received over the year increase as latitude increases. The amounts of sunlight received exhibit one minimum and one maximum in their annual swings. The poles have the greatest range since the Sun is in their skies continuously for six months and then below the horizon for the other half year.All seasonal changes are driven by changes in the amount of the Sun’s energy reaching the Earth’s surface (i.e., the amount of insolation). For example, more energy leads to higher temperatures, which results in more evaporation, which produces more rain, which starts plants growing. This sequence describes spring at mid-latitudes. Since visible light is the main form of solar energy reaching Earth, day length is a reasonably accurate way to gauge the level of insolation and has long been used as a way to understand when one season stops and the next one starts.3.   Temperature is a number that is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. If temperature is measured in Kelvin degrees, then this number is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. Heat is a measurement of the total energy in a substance. That total energy is made up of not only of the kinetic energies of the molecules of the substance, but total energy is also made up of the potential energies of the molecules. So, temperature is not energy. It is, though, a number that relates to one type of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance.Because adding heat energy usually results in a temperature rise, people often confuse heat and temperature. In common speech, the two terms mean the same: â€Å"I will heat it† means I will add heat; â€Å"I will warm it up† means I will increase the temperature. No one usually bothers to distinguish between these. Adding heat, however, does not always increase the temperature. For instance, when water is boiling, adding heat does not increase its temperature. This happens at the boiling temperature of every substance that can vaporize. At the boiling temperature, adding heat energy converts the liquid into a gas without raising the temperature.When energy is added to a liquid at the boilin g temperature, its converts the liquid into a gas at the same temperature. In this case, the energy added to the liquid goes into breaking the bonds between the liquid molecules without causing the temperature to change. The same thing happens when a solid changes into liquid. For instance, ice and water can exist together at the melting temperature. Adding heat to ice-water slush will convert some of the ice to water without changing the temperature. In general, whenever there is a change of state, such as the solid-liquid or the liquid-gas transition, heat energy can be added without a temperature change. The change of state requires energy; so added energy goes into that instead of increasing the temperature.The Celsius scale has been calibrated to the physical properties of pure water. It illustrates the significance of water as physical matter in all forms. The normal freezing point of water was set as 0  °C and the normal boiling point of water was set at 100  °C.4.   I have picked following atmospheric optical effects to examine and describe.Mirages are optical phenomena produced by refraction of light rays through air layers with large temperature gradients. An inferior mirage (i.e. it appears below its actual position) occurs when the temperature initially decreases rapidly with height. Light rays from the sky moving through the layers will be refracted upward in the less dense air (i.e. bent toward the denser air) giving the appearance of a layer of water. When seen from the ground or water a superior mirage (i.e. it appears above its actual position) occurs when there is a pronounced inversion near the surface, and normally over the sea or a large body of water. A distant object within the inversion layer, even something below the horizon, will appear in the sky above its actual position – possibly totally upside down or the upper portion upside down, but certainly distorted and wavering.A rainbow is the atmospheric optical phenomenon o bserved by solar light’s being reflected and refracted by the round water drops floating in the air. Because the refraction angle varies in the wavelength of the light, rainbow seems divided into seven colors from inside blue to outer red. The observer will see this concentration of reflected light rays as an intensified colored light band. This band consists of the first reflection rays from all the raindrops which lie on the surface of a cone, subtended at the observers eye, with an angular radius of 42 ° from an axis line drawn from the sun (directly behind the observer) through the observer’s head and extended down-sun to the antisolar point i.e. below the horizon where the shadow of the observer’s head might be.The Parhelia. When ice crystals are distributed on some condition in the sky, we can observe the lumps of light like the two suns in both sides of real sun. In case that ice crystals are distributing at random, the refracted light of 22 degrees by the solar light forms the â€Å"22 degrees halo†. But when crystal distributed being their bottom plate paralleling to the ground is superior, only refracted solar light on the right and left of the sun 22 degrees apart reaches observer. These refracted lights are detected as the Parhelia. It sometimes seems that some colors are separated like a rainbow.Circumzenithal arc. Refraction through the edges of plate crystals with nearly horizontal bases may produce a circumzenithal arc which is part of a circle, possibly one third, centered directly above the observer’s head and above the sun, just outside the 46 ° halo position. The halo may also be visible. The circumzenithal arc cannot occur when the sun’s elevation exceeds 32 °.Wave clouds. When air is lofted over a mountain range, it cools, saturates and condenses a windward-side cloud. The air surmounting the summit is just about at saturation, sometimes with respect to ice and at other times with respect to water, depending on the temperature and the height of the mountain barrier. Forcing air up over the overlying atmosphere causes a spring-like rebound and so the air stream downwind from the mountain barrier often undergoes an undulatory wave-like motion. At the crest of such waves, the airmass is supersaturated and a â€Å"wave-cloud† condenses out.

Air Traffic Management Concept Essay

This paper aims to show some major issues regarding the integration of future ground-based ATM decision support systems (The Air Traffic Management Concept) and how these systems will improve the human factor in the air traffic system. If present airspace procedures continue as it is, escalating traffic demands are presumed to compromise many things. Among these are on-time performance, security, and safety. Dealing with these escalating airspace aptitude prerequisites would necessitate considerable adjustment and enhancement to current-day procedures. One attempt in solving this problem is to give airlines more liberty in doing their own schedules and selections of traffic routes while still continuing to disperse tasks for partition and arrival planning to the ATSP. ATSP stands for Air Traffic Service Providers. Air Traffic Control-oriented tactics centers on airspace reorganization and development or improving of tools for air traffic managers and controllers which in turn, would enable them to handle air traffic more carefully and effectively. In the Air Traffic Management segment of the Terminal Area Productivity program, they were working on the incorporation of future ground-based ATM decision support systems with that of FMS (Flight Management System) furnished aircraft contained in the terminal district, the researches and illustrations centered on amplifying airport capacity. They do this by making use of the CTAS or Center TRACON Automation System for producing effective trajectories. Data connect for communicating the said trajectories into the aircraft and Flight Management System furnished aircraft for flying them accurately (The Boeing Company, 2001). In this regard major airports which are plagued by the difficulties of aircraft arrival rushes should be studied. The objective was to present a safe, highly competent flow of traffic which would begin from en route into TRACON airspace which dependably transports aircraft to the runway entry, while preserving as much flight crew suppleness and authorities as sensible. Triumphant planning and implementation of an effective arrival flow necessitates a meticulous knowledge of all aircraft and operators. Knowledge on traffic managements as well as on spacing limitations is also needed. It should also include synchronization among controllers, flight crews, as well as traffic administration. The plan for future ground-based ATM decision support systems could be imagined as a human-centered system on which the controllers as well as the pilots would employ processes, flight management mechanization as well as evaluation support tools to aggressively supervise traffic arrival. It could be seen that they aim for a future air traffic system which are run and supervised by the ATSP and they anticipate this to be ready by 2010. ATSP stands for Air Traffic Service Providers (NASA Ames Research Center, 2002). . The operational theory for attaining effectiveness developments over current procedures is to map an effective arrival stream earlier than necessary and then implement the arrival plan as accurately as could be. They also presented a â€Å"multi-sector arrival planner† Air Traffic Control arranges to link the breach among traffic administrators, dispatchers as well as the sector controllers. The planner’s duties include producing the most effective schedule and arrangement for all incoming aircraft and conflict-free flight routes which would always be able to meet the schedules. The planner organizes the engendered flight routes. The sector controllers concerns would then on use a graphical coordination apparatus. After analyzing the recommended flight path, the sector controllers delivers fitting authorizations to the flight crews. The flight crews would then pursue the cleared path accurately applying their flight management mechanization. Sector controllers are in charge in preserving division and modifying the arrival plan to new situations. Automation and processes are planned in order to aid with all the above mentioned tasks (Advanced Air Transportation Technologies, 1999). The Terminal Area Productivity concept is more calculated than the current system but the controllers are vigorously engaged with everything in the procedure of developing and implementing a traffic flow plan which would be used for arrival rush. Although it drastically modifies the tasks of the stakeholders it does not alter their accountabilities. The first flight deck oriented recreation revealed that data link procedure in the fatal region was adequate and advantageous for the flight crews. Usually crews favor a Boeing 777 which decreases heads-down time on the arena. They could productively use the sides flight management purpose LNAV to the concluding method fix. A VSD model was launched to aid in using Flight Management System automation nearer to the ground. This was meted with high markings by the flightcrews. Vital workload or operation disparities cannot be found among situations with and without the Vertical Situation Display or VSD (The Boeing Company, 2001). A flight reproduction at NASA Langley Research Center yielded a promising result. It showed that miscalculations on arrival time at the closing approach fix could be considerably lessened. This could be done by flying TRACON trajectories with Flight Management System supervision as compared with heading vectors. The preliminary illustration of CTAS/FMS procedures with controllers showed the promise for augmenting the effectiveness of arrival streams by using the CTAS tools for planning and supervising. The devised controller interface with the mechanization and the data link was tolerable. However, it could still make use of further enhancements. There are a number of drawbacks which had been mentioned here. Among the said drawbacks are too much information in the data block, an inept and complex course trial planning interface as well as the three button mouse. The operational concept however, obtained good feedbacks and the controllers were eager for the promise it shows. The Advanced Air Transportation Technology is a branch of NASA’s ASC program. ASC stands for Aviation System Capacity. Its goal is to better the overall operation of NAS (National Airspace System). In so as to attain this goal AATT is building up decision support technologies and processes to help National Airspace System stakeholders. The vision of the Advanced Air Transportation Technology Project concerning far-term National Airspace System procedures is represented in the Distributive Air Ground Traffic Management concept (Advanced Air Transportation Technologies, 1999). Distributed Air Ground Traffic Management is aiming for a free-flight environment on which flight crews would be able to take more part on decision making processes. Rather than merely implementing controller directions, the crews would have more liberty in asking for and choosing flight routes. Developed on-board automation for variance detection and resolve would affect the pilot’s behavior, hence influencing controller’s attitude and placing more conditions on ground automation and information sharing. The Distributed Air Ground concepts cover an assortment of probable means to handle arrivals varying from continuous free-flight to fully ground-controlled. There are two extremes in the process. The first is the free-flight to the threshold. The second is Ground (ATSP) Controlled Arrival. The free-flight to the threshold entails that the flight deck in charge for route planning and division from the aircraft all the way through the arrival. The aircraft turns up at the Center in free flight. It is accountable for extricating itself from other traffic. Traffic flow management restraints for going into the terminal region are made accessible to the flight crew. The flight crews in turn modify their terminal arrival plan fittingly. Upon drawing near the TRACON airspace, the flight crews pick the aircraft which they desire to track to the threshold and choose the appropriate assimilating and spacing boundaries then they would go after the lead aircraft to the runway. Ground (ATSP) controlled arrival is another extreme in that this is very near to the concept illustrated on the earlier TAP research. Upon coming in the terminal airspace free flight is terminated for the incoming traffic. Ground-based traffic managers are then responsible for two things. Their responsibility ranges from making a schedule and arrival trajectories to communicating them to the aircrafts. The aircraft could downlink a certain flight path demand that the Air Traffic Service Providers may or may not agree into. Accountability for division and route planning keeps on the ground all over the course of the arrival stage. The flight crew obtains more tactical Flight Management System and spacing authorizations than in today’s tactical settings (NASA Ames Research Center, 2002). Free flight to the threshold would necessitate added aircraft equipment. This may involve RTA and CDTI. Conflict detection and resolution algorithm could also be included. RTA stands for Required Time of Arrival while CDTI stands for Cockpit Display of Traffic Information. Ground controlled arrivals are a little different. They do not make use of the aircraft abilities in the most effective conduct. Aside from that they put the whole flow supervision problems on the controller. The future air traffic system would direct arrivals in such a way that it would be lying between the boundaries of the two extremes mentioned earlier. This opens the possibility of moving from ground-controlled into a free-flight (NASA Ames Research Center, 2002). Experiments and operational performances would illustrate which concept seems to be most suitable. The amount of free-flight against Air Traffic Control could be dependent on the traffic circumstances, facility performances, aircraft equipments, and airline inclinations. Those who are in charge sees the need for the air traffic system to be devised to have room for all potential forms operation between the extremes discussed in this paper. Thus, all enabling technologies ought to be enhanced, incorporated and assessed, including the following: a. Cockpit Display of Traffic Information with airborne conflict detection b. FMS with Required Time of Arrival capacities. c. On-board integration and spacing apparatus d. ADS-B and CPDLC data link communication e. Traffic Management advisory apparatus f. Ground-based conflict detection and resolution g. Ground based tools for trajectory generation with meet time constraints (NASA Ames Research Center, 2003) Most of the above mentioned equipments are already obtainable in remote examination models. Those in charge are presently in the course of assimilating them at NASA Ames Research Center to generate a model environment that permits examining these concerns. They are also expanding an arrival concept that supplies the elasticity to alter the quantity of self division to traffic flow management restraints and other necessities. They also originally mean to maintain the free-flight airspace apart from the ground-controlled airspace. The border can be denoted as a curve about the meter fix or the adjacent arrival gate or a plain elevation floor. This can be attuned for traffic intricacy. Very low traffic circumstances could be different. In such cases the free flight region could be as near to the airport as the gauge fix. The arrival setting starts with the aircraft which would arrive at the Center in what they call to be a â€Å"free maneuvering mode†. The flight crews are in charge for division, traffic management restraints at the metering fix are then on relayed from the planner. This is done by using the CTAS Traffic Management Advisor to the flight level, the flight crew on the other hand, is the one anticipated to prepare their flight route to land at the metering fix near the probable time. That is, if scheduling is necessary. The flight crew would then be informed as to where the free flight periphery presently stops. The flight crew would also be informed when to confirm things with the controller (NASA Ames Research center, 2002). The arrival planner continues appraising the circumstances by means of Descent Advisor apparatus and attempts to produce an arrival arrangement for the ground-controlled airspace that the arrival planner would convey to the sector controllers. Once the sector controller obtains the test in from the free maneuvering aircraft, he would then on call off free flight and release the arrival authorization to the aircraft. This would be founded on aircraft choice and arrival plan in that they are likely to fly the arrival authorization to the meter fix accurately. The Center TRACON Automation System apparatus help the TRACON controllers in shaping appropriate aircraft pairs for getting in-trail spacing authorizations. Division in charge hangs about with the organizer all the way through the TRACON (NASA Ames Research center, 2002). This setting permits us to examine most facets of the appropriate Distributive Air Ground Traffic Management concept fundamentals and constructs on the preceding arrival research especially since current deliberations with controllers and pilots was met with positive feedbacks. Among the probable advantages of Distributive Air Ground Traffic Management are: †¢ Amplified user effectiveness/flexibility. DAG-TM presents users paramount prospect to self-optimize their ventures within the vigorous restraints of the Air Traffic Management System. †¢ Amplified system capabilities. Allocation of division accountability to properly furnished aircraft and Air Traffic Service Providers-based DSTs could possibly lessen controller workload, thus permitting the Air Traffic Service Providers to control more traffic. †¢ Amplified system safety because of an important increase in situational understanding and allocation of workload. †¢ Allocation of the expenditures for National Air Space innovation between users and the Air Traffic Service Providers. †¢ Lessened user reliance upon Air Traffic Service Providers assistances and a ground-based infrastructure. This could also intensify global interoperability (Advanced Air Transportation Technologies, 1999). As could be seen the integration of future ground-based ATM decision support systems is very promising. These new technology would indeed be helpful in aiding to augment the overstrained air traffic control systems. This new technology let aircrafts operate safely about traffic and airspace perils (i. e. weather), while still going in accordance with the traffic flow restraints delivered by ground-based controllers (Advanced Air Transportation Technologies, 1999). To try this particular concept, they asked pilots and air traffic controllers to coordinate with each other along with the NASA researchers for a combined simulation. The simulation utilized air traffic control and deck laboratories. â€Å"This joint simulation tested our technology in an almost real-world environment,† stated project manager Mike Landis. â€Å"More than 20 pilots sat at computer workstations ‘flying’ simulated aircraft into a mock-up of the Dallas/Fort Worth airspace. Pilots also flew one of NASA’s high-fidelity, full- motion flight simulators in the joint experiment. The air traffic controllers were able to see all of these aircraft on displays, and the pilots used an autonomous flight management system to plan their own routes and safely and seamlessly fit into the traffic flow. Controllers were able to watch their progress on simulated air traffic control monitors† (Dino, 2004). The airborne segment of the mock-up employed promising technologies which offered real-time air traffic and risk information. It also examined all aircrafts and airspace peril in the surrounding area. Complicated cockpit technology warned the pilots to any sign of conflicts. It also alerts the pilots into how to stop more difficulties when maneuvering. Solutions were offered mechanically or with the use of manual flight route planning apparatus. This is a visual illustration of the DAG-TM concept. â€Å"On the ground, air traffic controllers used new computer software to work the mix of autonomous and conventional air traffic. NASA researchers developed experimental controller workstations for the joint simulation, integrating custom display enhancements with special planning, traffic flow management, and pilot-controller communication technologies† (Dino, 2004). Special software was used to aid in running the traffic flow. This special software was also used to aid the aircrafts which were not furnished with the self-sufficient flight management system, in this regard air traffic control automation observed every aircrafts. They are also responsible for cautioning the controller regarding possible conflicts. These conflicts could be found amid the autonomous and managed traffic. Researchers also examined the way the pilots and air traffic controllers coped with this new invention. â€Å"Researchers measured how hard the pilots and controllers were working,† said Parimal Kopardekar, human factors and operations sub-project manager. â€Å"It’s important that they find this job relatively easy to do, even as traffic levels go up. We believe the computer automation technology will make a big difference† (Dino, 2004). As could be seen the future ground-based ATM decision support systems is very promising. It is of great help for managing air traffic. This method could consent for the effective planning of flights with the use of the most effective paths and flexibility in flight processes. Little by little, as air carriers furnish aircrafts with new technologies, they could effortlessly incorporate them into the system and harvest instant advantages. â€Å"As air travel rebounds in the coming years, additional traffic will tax the air traffic control system beyond its current capability,† said Mark Ballin, aircraft systems and operations sub-project manager. â€Å"NASA is working to develop technologies to transform the way air traffic is managed† (Dino, 2004). A definition for DAG-TM was organized by a multi-disciplinary squad. This team was created by the AATT project office, the Distributed Air Ground Traffic Management is illustrated by allocated decision-making among the flight deck, Air Traffic service Providers and AOC. It is also a National Airspace System operation which augments user effectiveness, flexibility and system capabilities. The Distributed Air Ground Traffic Management advocates that the said definition be assessed as one probable expansion of the numerous Free Flight execution methods presently under deliberation. The concept of strategic arrival management illustrated in the Terminal Area Productivity research could be seen to have many potential. The Distributive Air Ground research shifts from a ground-controlled setting to a more disseminated setting with probably uneven division tasks. NASA Ames is presently organizing a research setting to examine Distributive Air Ground Traffic Management with all main technologies incorporated. Preliminary concepts and settings have been identified and conferred with pilot or controller center groups. Based from the simulations they conducted one could not help but admit the promises this new technology offers. If this new technology is put into use soon it could greatly help in saving time. It would also be beneficial in the sense that this new technology advocates safety as one of its primary goals. As air traffic lessen, safety increases and with that there is definitely no reason not to support this new development. References Advanced Air Transportation Technologies (AATT), Project Aviation System Capacity (ASC), & Program National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (1999). Concept Definition for Distributed Air/Ground Traffic Management (DAG-TM) [Electronic Version]. Retrieved November 10, 2007, from http://www. asc. nasa. gov/aatt/dagconop. pdf Dino, J. (2004). Coast-to-Coast Simulation Tests New Air Traffic Management Concepts [Electronic Version]. Retrieved November 10, 2007, from http://www. nasa. gov/vision/earth/improvingflight/DAG-TM. html NASA Ames Research Center. (2002). DAG-TM Concept Element 5 En Route Free Maneuvering Operational Concept Description [Electronic Version]. Retrieved November 10, 2007, from http://www. asc. nasa. gov/aatt/rto/RTOFinal72_DAGCE50CD. pdf NASA Ames Research Center (2003). DAG-TM Concept Element 6 En Route Trajectory Negotiation Operational Concept Description [Electronic Version]. Retrieved November 10, 2007, from http://www. asc. nasa. gov/aatt/rto/RTOFinal72_DAGCE60CD. pdf The Boeing Company. (2001). Air Traffic Management [Electronic Version]. Retrieved November 10, 2007, from http://www. emotionreports. com/downloads/pdfs/traffic_management. pdf

The First Appendectomy

Celeste Chen Ms. Filowitz Language Arts 1 (Pre-IB) Period 5 7 September 2012 Writing Assignment #1: Author’s Purpose When composing a literary selection, an author has a point he or she wants to put across. There is a purpose, whether it be of the conscious or subconscious mind, almost every time an author composes. In Dr. Nolen’s case, he crafted this selection, â€Å"The First Appendectomy†, to inform the reader of the challenges of a young surgeon.To begin with, it is shown in many different ways that Dr. Nolen wanted to inform his reader of the issues a young doctor faces. Dr. Nolen writes with an urgency and a sense of a ticking clock, as shown in his frequent usage of measurements of time. â€Å"He could have tied off all the vessels in two minutes. It took me twenty. † (149) Therefore, the reader can infer from the selection, that the work of a surgeon is difficult and stressful, as a surgeon is racing against time as he or she is operating.The dang ers of going over time are prominent enough to extract much needed confidence, for an efficient surgery, from the heart of an amateur. Dr. Nolen wants to inform the reader on the challenges a young surgeon faces, such as forgetting how to perform a certain task, stressing over how much time is left and trying to impress a senior advisor. Dr. Nolen forgets how to perform this simple appendectomy. â€Å"†¦ for the life of me could not decide where to make the incision. (147) It is apparent, that Dr. Nolen wanted to exhibit the obstacles of a first-time surgeon. Having a purpose to compose a selection is very important for an author, for it sets the tone of the piece. Dr. Nolen decided to inform readers on how a young surgeon struggles in his first surgery. Many people do not quite realize how stressful and nerve-wracking a surgery can be, and Dr. Nolen writes this piece to show to the public exactly that.

Observing Non-Verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is the process of communicating that is characterized by the absence of words but rather communicating, sending and receiving messages via bodily language, styles, and symbols. I tried to observe this type of communication in the park with a particular male and female as a target subjects. A young man, possibly 20 yrs of age and a woman, more or less of the same age group, were ‘conversing’ in the park at 5 PM in the afternoon. I use the term ‘conversation’ loosely here. Using the concept of proxemics, parks would be classified under the group, public territory, but I note that, generally speaking, such places would have no control on the behavior of the people; people there would exceed territorial rights with regards to their behavior. Without thoughtful analysis, the first idea that had entered my head was that the man and the woman were in a relation but apparently I cannot make a concluding statement about this. Physical appearances suggest informal relations as suggested by their casual appearances. Both were wearing pants with the female wearing a pink tank top and the male wearing a faded statement shirt. There is a high possibility that their meeting was not business or work associated. I disregarded Monochromatic time schedule in favor of Poly-chronic time schedule since the subjects conversation and appearances were evidently personal. Kinesic communication of the subjects— facial expressions, body movements, gestures, and posture ­Ã¢â‚¬â€reveal one important thing; the subject’s conversation was neither intimate but rather harried, constrained and angry. There was an obvious lack of touch between the two which would denote ‘friendship’ or ‘love’. The woman was gesticulating her hands wildly, and at some point in time, she was waving her right hand at the right empty space indicating that she was ‘emphasizing’ something to the man. Her shoulders were not slumped but rather posed upwards indicating a highly constrained emotion. Her feet was braced apart and she walking around wildly. Her face was clearly angry; her brows were drawn together in a frown and most probably her nostrils were growing bigger or flaring up, with her irises dilating indicating, a high emotional state. The sides of her mouth were slanted downwards as she was talking clearly indicating a negative emotion. Her curly hair was moving with the movement of her mouth. Blood was rushing to her face which makes her face really look red indeed. When the male was talking, she was ‘rolling her eyes’, indicating mockery and disbelief to what the person was saying. She was intentionally trying or trying to appear like she was not listening to the other person was saying when she was looking away at the other direction. The male subject was equally angry. His stance, shoulders upwards were poised for a fight but he was defensive as indicated by the arms that were crossed high on his chest. When he was not talking, his lips were drawn in tight line and he was highly attentive what the female was saying because ‘he did not remove his eyes from her’. His eyes were in slits, indicating anger and at some point, he was also gesticulating his hands indicating that he was forcefully explaining something to the female. I observed that proxemics for the park as a space was clearly loosely defined as to the public territorial usage; the subjects were clearly using the space for ‘personal’ purposes. Movement and body position of my subjects hinges towards negative emotional responses, ost specially that of charged anger. The subjects exhibited negative attitudes, and mostly involuntary non-verbal communication. All messages transmitted between the two were conscous and deliberate and not subliminal; their conversation was intended to say something and both were equally aware of it. Bibliography Argyle, M. (1988). Bodily Communication. Madison: International UP.

Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching Assignment

Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching - Assignment Example Packet switches finds it application mostly in the exchange conducted through the computer or other modern digital devices that make use of bits and packets of data. P.S.T.N enabled transmission is an example of circuit switch technology while VOIP and IP network is an example of Packet switched network(Rahman, Ellis, & Pursell, 2003). The major difference between the two is in the manner in which the information is sent. Circuit switched network has a pre defined and dedicated path for signal transmission. This dedicated transmission takes place in multiple phases starting with establishing of the call, followed by the transfer and finally the termination of link at the end of the call. While packet switch deals with node to node and does not work on the basis of pre allocated path for traffic transmission. Circuit switching relies mostly on T.D.M or F.D.M or at best on C.D.M for channel transmission, while Packet switch uses dynamic I.P network which is far more effective and can accommodate more options compared to its predecessor. Chances of contention are relatively higher in case of circuit switching mode. Routing processes in Packet switching are more concrete and hop to hop basis routing is performed which makes it easy for overall packet transmission and packets are exchanged and extended in form of store and forward mechanism(Kurose, 2005). Line efficiency of packet switched system is far better than the predecessor. In case of traffic congestion, the prioritization process can be adopted this makes the network working unlike circuit switch which is highly prone to congestion and saturation. Packets are handled either through the virtual circuits or through the data gram. Amongst these two, datagram is more flexible. Though relatively slow and limited in options, circuit switches are considered more reliable than the packet switch as the overall transmission is handled from